O nineists are Muslim! Then you have you done
What was the kidney of the one who has a broken star?
In the Middle Ages, often referred to as the Golden Age of Muslim civilization (600–1700 CE), Muslim scholars established a strong culture of research and scholarship, which added to the glory of the Islamic Empire through their scholarly and scientific achievements. The “Bayt al-Hikmat” of Baghdad, the libraries of Cordoba, and numerous schools promoted the study and translation of Greek, Persian, Hindi, and other ancient sciences.
This academic environment fostered critical thinking, careful documentation, and innovation, leading to advances in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. By translating classical texts into Arabic, Muslim scholars preserved and transmitted knowledge, creating an important bridge between ancient civilizations, Islamic scholarship, and later European thought.
In the Middle Ages, Muslim researchers such as al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, al-Razi, al-Farabi, and Ibn al-Haytham developed knowledge in mathematics, medicine, optics, and chemistry and introduced new concepts based on Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions, which were later translated into Latin and influenced the European Renaissance.
Muslim rule, such as the Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, and Ottoman empires, spread across the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Central and South Asia, and parts of Southeast Europe, based on the unifying influence of Islam, strong leadership, effective administration, active trade, and the popularity of Islamic culture and laws. The economy was sustained by trade links, modern agriculture, skilled craftsmanship, urban markets, taxation systems, banking and technological innovation, which fostered cultural, educational and scientific achievements.
At the same time, the universities and academic institutions of the Muslim world became important centers of knowledge and research, in which Bait al-Hikamat of Baghdad was the center of translation and research. Al-Qairwan University in Morocco taught mathematics, astronomy, law and literature along with religious studies, Al-Azhar University in Egypt provided education in medicine, logic and philosophy along with religious studies, and the famous libraries of Córdoba were the center of work on medicine, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy with a collection of millions of books.
In addition, various madrasahs served as local educational institutions providing training in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy along with religious education, and all these institutions played a key role in preserving knowledge, generating new ideas, and later transmitting knowledge for the European Renaissance.
At its height, the Abbasid Caliphate ruled a vast and diverse area that included present-day Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, parts of Algeria, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as parts of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, and the eastern and southern regions of Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia. This vast empire was a cultural and intellectual center, connecting different peoples in Asia, Africa and parts of Europe during the Middle Ages.
The Ottoman Empire ruled a vast area of Europe, Asia, and Africa, covering about 25 to 30 present-day countries. It included present-day Turkey, large parts of the Balkans (such as Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Bosnia), large areas of the Middle East (such as Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, and parts of Saudi Arabia), and large areas of North Africa (such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria), as well as parts of the Caucasus. These vast and diverse territories made the Ottoman Empire one of the most powerful and enduring empires in history during the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the Middle Ages, Europe was largely divided into feudal states, with a weak central government, low literacy and slow intellectual development, while the territories that later became the United States of America had diverse societies of indigenous tribes with no connection to Europe or the Islamic world.
European scholars and travelers sought knowledge in Muslim centers such as Baghdad, Cordoba, and Cairo, where libraries and institutions preserved and promoted knowledge in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and the natural sciences. The translation of Arabic texts into Latin, especially in places like Toledo, provided Europe with access to this highly scholarly material, which laid an important foundation for the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages (roughly 5th to 15th centuries), there were no central states, universities, or research institutions in what is now the Americas, and there was no connection to the scientific and technological advances of Europe, the Islamic world, or Asia.
The reasons for the decline of Muslim rule after the Middle Ages included internal and external challenges, including political turmoil, succession disputes, and the loss of territory to the Mongols, Crusaders, and European powers. Economic difficulties, weakening of trade, slow pace of scientific and technological progress, and rigidity of socio-administrative structures also played a role, while European naval power and colonial influence further reduced the influence of Muslim empires over time.
The situation has changed by now. Europe and America are now at the forefront of research and innovation, based on well-funded universities, advanced infrastructure, and strong collaboration between academia, industry, and government. China, Japan, South Korea and India are also emerging as important partners. Prestigious educational institutions such as Howard, MIT, Stanford, Oxford, Cambridge, Imperial College London are contributing to modern research, and the literacy rate in these regions is more than 99%.
Major research universities in Muslim-majority countries include Saudi Arabia’s King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, King Abdulaziz University, and Turkey’s Middle East Technical University, while in Pakistan, Quaid-e-Azam University, NUST, Jamia Punjab, and Agricultural University Faisalabad are the leading universities. Space research, medicine, renewable energy, artificial intelligence and start-ups have significant contributions to scientific and technological progress in the Muslim world, but education and literacy rates vary between countries, reflecting both progress and current challenges.
Improving research, innovation and higher education in Pakistan and the Muslim world requires an early focus on quality education and critical thinking, increased funding for universities and research institutes, and transparent and merit-based allocation of resources. Establishing world-class institutions with expert faculty, modern infrastructure, and academic freedom can help retain talent and reduce brain drain.
Fostering collaboration between universities, industry, and startups, supporting entrepreneurship, protecting intellectual property, and establishing innovation centers are essential to turn research into practical results, while interdisciplinary programs, international partnerships, innovative curricula, and a culture of research and lifelong learning can strengthen education and global competitiveness.
(Author’s Introduction: Dr. Muhammad Zahid Raza is an academician and researcher attached to University of Punjab (Lahore). He has published several papers in research journals. He also writes articles for newspapers. ((email protected)
